Political Systems

General Principles. Concerning the constitution and mode of recruitment of the lower chambers there is now substantial unanimity of opinion and of practice that it should rest upon a popular basis, that its members should be elected by direct, equal, secret, and what is commonly described as universal suffrage, and that the tenure of their … Read more

Constitution of Upper Chambers. It is not possible here to discuss in detail the constitution of upper chambers, even of the more important states. Upon examination it will be found that they may be grouped in the following classes : First: Those which are constituted wholly or predominantly upon the hereditary principle. They include the … Read more

Constitution of the legislative organ. The Unicameral Principle. For a long time it was regarded almost as an axiom in political science that legislative bodies especially national legislatures should be constituted of two chambers, and in practice the great majority of them are so constituted today. This principle, said Bryce, is the quad semper, the … Read more

Ancient Legislative Organs. Representative legislative assemblies as we know them today are of comparatively recent origin. Montesquieu observed that the ancients had no notion of a legislative assembly composed of representatives of the people. In the states of antiquity the legislative power was not delegated to small select bodies of representatives but was exercised by … Read more

Distribution of the powers of government. The Two-Power Theory. Strictly speaking, the powers of government may be classified as first, those which consist in the formulation and expression of the will of the state, and, second, those which have to do with the execution of the will thus expressed. The first power may be comprehended … Read more

Factors which determine the value of the electoral privilege. First, the Number of Elective officers. Manifestly the value of the suffrage and the power which its possessor is capable of wielding through -its exercise depend upon several conditions. In the first place, it necessarily varies in proportion to the number of elective officers and the … Read more

Existing Suffrage Requirements . Exceptions to the Principle of Universal Suffrage : While the principle of what is commonly described as universal suffrage at least for male citizens and in the great majority of countries for women also has now become the general rule, it is hardly necessary to say that the principle is not … Read more

Arguments  against the Political Enfranchisement of Women suffrage. Hand in hand with the spread of democracy and the extension of the Suffrage to the masses of the male population has gone the movement for the political enfranchisement of women. At the time of the French Revolution when the dogma of universal suffrage was at its … Read more

The Constitution of the electorate. Regarding the constitution of the electorate who should enjoy the franchise and who should be denied it-both theory and practice have materially varied in different epochs and in different countries. Perhaps the most remarkable phenomenon in the history of democracy in the past century has been the steady evolution of … Read more

Importance of the Electoral Function. The Constitution of the electorate and the organization of the processes through which it exercises its functions are questions of paramount importance in a system of representative government, for the reason that it constitutes the very foundation and essence of that system. As will be pointed out in the following … Read more