The eighteenth century in France marked a turning point in political thought. Emerging from the shadows of Louis XIV’s absolutism and the decadence of the monarchy, French philosophers like Montesquieu and Rousseau sought to reinterpret natural law in light of social inequality, bureaucracy, and the failures of autocracy. Unlike Locke’s English model, French political philosophy … Read more

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 marked a turning point in English political history, establishing a constitutional monarchy and redefining the relationship between church and state. Central to this transformation were George Savile, First Marquis of Halifax, and philosopher John Locke. Their pragmatic, empirically grounded approaches emphasized toleration, individual rights, and the balance between power and … Read more

The 17th-century English republican thinkers—James Harrington, John Milton, and Algernon Sidney—shaped political thought through their theories of government, liberty, and property. Harrington emphasized the economic basis of political power and the structure of an ideal commonwealth, Milton championed freedom of speech and moral justification of resistance, and Sidney upheld parliamentary accountability over hereditary monarchy. Their … Read more

The English Civil Wars sparked revolutionary ideas about political and economic equality. The Levellers emerged advocating radical democracy, individual rights, and parliamentary representation, while the Diggers pursued utopian communism, emphasizing communal land ownership and the eradication of economic inequality. Together, these groups shaped early modern radical thought, influencing later democratic and socialist movements. “The poorest … Read more

Thomas Hobbes revolutionized political thought by applying scientific reasoning to human behavior and governance. From his analysis of self-preservation to the justification of sovereign power, Hobbes created a systematic philosophy that merged psychology, materialism, and politics. His ideas, most famously in Leviathan, continue to shape modern theories of law, individualism, and government. “The condition of … Read more

The English Civil War of the 1640s was the result of decades of political, religious, and legal tensions. Unlike France, where ideas of divine right and popular resistance were clearly defined, England’s monarchy operated in a delicate balance with Parliament, the courts, and an evolving middle class. Thinkers like Thomas More, Richard Hooker, Sir Edward … Read more

The seventeenth century marked a revolutionary shift in political thought, as philosophers sought to free law and governance from religious authority. The modernized theory of natural law, developed by thinkers like Althusius and Grotius, emphasized reason, social contracts, and the intrinsic sociability of humans. By prioritizing individual consent, justice, and moral obligation, it laid the … Read more

Jean Bodin, a 16th-century French philosopher, transformed political thought with his Six Livres de la République (1576). Moving beyond religious partisanship, Bodin analyzed sovereignty, the state, and the family, advocating for strong centralized power while pioneering ideas on religious toleration and property rights. His work laid the foundation for modern political theory and influenced later … Read more

The 16th century witnessed a profound clash of ideas over the source and limits of political authority. In France, England, and the Netherlands, religious wars and civil unrest fueled competing doctrines: the divine right of kings, asserting that rulers derived power directly from God, and anti-royalist theories, arguing that sovereignty originated from the people and … Read more

The early Protestant reformers transformed European religion and politics by intertwining theological debate with secular authority. Reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Knox challenged the Roman Church and redefined the role of the state, influencing concepts of obedience, resistance, and governance that would resonate for centuries. “It is in no wise proper for … Read more