Political Science Learning & Reference Hub
The United States is the world’s second-largest democracy and arguably the most powerful nation on earth under its federal constitutional system. Over the past fifteen years, intense political developments — from rising polarization to record voter engagement — have shaped how citizens view and participate in American politics. Whether you’re new to civic life or … Read more
American Government and Politics: Deliberation, Democracy, and Citizenship by John J. Pitney Jr. and Joseph M. Bessette, Ph.D. offers a modern, in-depth examination of the U.S. political system through the lens of deliberative democracy. Unlike traditional textbooks, this work emphasizes citizenship, historical foundations, civic culture, and public reasoning as essential components of effective democratic governance. … Read more
International law is the body of principles and rules recognized as binding among states that govern their relations and interactions. It outlines states’ rights and obligations and provides procedures for protecting those rights and addressing violations. Originating from historic customs and treaties, international law today encompasses public treaties, customary practice, and broader legal reasoning that … Read more
Theories of state functions seek to explain what the state should do, how far its authority should extend, and how it should relate to individuals and society. These theories are inseparable from ideas about state organization, political authority, and social welfare. Ranging from anarchism, which rejects the state entirely, to socialism and modern regulatory theories … Read more
The qualification and appointment of judges is a cornerstone of constitutional governance and judicial independence. Courts require judges of exceptional learning, integrity, impartiality, and independence to uphold justice and the rule of law. In the United States, judges are selected through varied methods—legislative election, popular election, and executive appointment—each carrying distinct implications for judicial independence, … Read more
The organization of the judiciary refers to the structured arrangement of courts through which justice is administered in a state. In most countries, including the United States, the judiciary follows a pyramidal structure, with lower courts at the base, intermediate courts above them, and a supreme court at the apex. This hierarchical organization ensures judicial … Read more
In modern legal systems, especially in the United States and other Anglo-American countries, courts play a vital role not only in interpreting laws but also in shaping and developing them. When statutes are silent, ambiguous, or incomplete, judges fill the gaps through interpretation, reasoning, and precedent. This body of law—commonly known as judge-made law or … Read more
The judiciary is a cornerstone of modern democratic governance. Its primary function is to deliver justice by interpreting and applying laws fairly and impartially. Over time, the administration of justice evolved from private retaliation and clan-based remedies into an exclusive function of the state. In the United States, the judiciary not only settles disputes and … Read more
International Relations is a vital branch of political science that examines how states interact with one another in both peace and conflict. It focuses on diplomatic practices, war, treaties, international law, and cooperation among nations. The nature of international relations is shaped not only by governments but also by geography, population, economics, culture, military power, … Read more
Change is a constant force in human society, but what distinguishes the modern era is the speed, scale, and global reach of change. Advances in communication, technology, population growth, and economic development have transformed social, physical, and political environments. These transformations directly influence how public policy is formed and contested. As societies adapt, political change … Read more